We placed the ground electrode on the left mastoid bone and referenced online to CPz. 1C, 2A). semantic category, and non-repeated pictures of objects from different categories could be explained by the differences in the perceptual similarity between the stimuli rather than the semantic content. Alternatively, increased mAG activation during reading than picture naming might reflect increased demands on top-down modulation that predicts the visual input (Carreiras et al., 2009). We recruited 37 participants, however, since we only investigated those who reported using a strategy, the final sample only included 22 participants (15 female, seven males; median age: 21, range: 18–30; classified by the same report form as experiment 1). Therefore, all the younger participants were right handed and responded with their right hand. The first effect would be then similar to MMN and second one to N400 classical topographies. However, the most common presenting symptoms are in the verbal domain (with loss of word meaning). Thus, to ensure that we included activity in the entire left AG, we reported all significant foci that were located within a mask that extended from −20 mm to −60 mm in the x-direction, from −54 mm to −82 mm in the y-direction, and from +16 mm to +54 mm in the z-direction (Rushworth et al., 2006). In our preregistered interaction contrast in the latency range from 0 to 382 ms poststimulus, the cluster-based permutation analysis yielded no clusters. Importantly, only those individuals who reported conscious strategic expectation showed evidence of behavioral facilitation given by the global context, while those individuals who did not report a conscious strategy only exhibited facilitation as a result of the local context. The early effects showed a predictive signal as in both clusters the voltage exhibited more extreme values for unrelated than related items. We excluded the 4 conditions that used familiar stimuli because they may involve direct or indirect semantic access that can bias the overlap with the semantic network. We suggest below that the dAG is involved in searching for a semantic representation and vAG is associated with later stages of conceptual identification. This factorial experimental design allowed us to investigate how the following factors influence the direction and height of activation in different subdivisions within the left AG. Recent studies have demonstrated that the capacity of visual working memory is influenced by the type of information to be remembered and is greater for real-world objects than for abstract stimuli. An optimal expectation then would be to always predict DOG in response to CAT, thus resulting in CNVs that do not differ across prime validity. Future studies are required to look at the timing of activations in these three AG subdivisions and their connectivity, and to further compare the AG subdivisions identified here with AG areas associated with resting-state networks other than the default network (Damoiseaux et al., 2006; van den Heuvel et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2009). Thank you for sharing this eNeuro article. The local-global paradigm (Bekinschtein et al., 2009) elegantly pits local expectation within each trial (i.e., standard vs deviant pitch tones) against a global expectation built from the context across blocks of trials. We found that the intersection of the semantic system with the default network defines a functional landmark that segregates three different functional subdivisions in AG that we refer to as mAG (at the point of overlap), vAG (ventral to the overlap) and dAG (dorsal to the overlap). The extent of the semantic activation in the left AG overlapped on the probabilistic cytoarchitectonic (coronal view at y = −66, with a zoom on the left AG). A novel two-step rt-fMRI-NF procedure is proposed whereby the feedback display is updated in real-time based on high level (semantic) representations of experimental stimuli … When revisions are invited, a fact-based synthesis statement explaining their decision and outlining what is needed to prepare a revision will be listed below. 5), whereas in another study the local MMN effect was localized to the temporal parietal junction and prefrontal cortex (Chennu et al., 2013), indicating not entirely overlapping neurocognitive processes. The inclusion criteria were the same as those for experiment 1; however, participants were also required to attend for a structural T1-weighted MRI scan at the University of Birmingham; therefore, participants who had any metal parts in their body, were claustrophobic, or women who were pregnant were excluded from the study, as the scan was mandatory for participation. Specifically, RTs that were more than X SDs from the mean were considered to be outliers and were removed, where the value of X decreases with decreasing sample size (i.e., number of trials in each condition for that participant) and is anchored at X = 2.5 for a sample size of 100. The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory? Therefore, in a deviation from the preregistered plan, we chose our latest time point of EEG data to analyze as 150 ms before the fastest mean RT across conditions (in this instance, high validity-related = 532 ms; for a similar approach, see Kuperberg et al., 2018). Therefore, the relative levels of attention across conditions could interact to generate this apredictive effect. This data were then bandpass filtered between 1 and 40 Hz using a firws filter as implemented in FieldTrip (Oostenveld et al., 2011). In the speech production conditions, there was no semantic or perceptual relationship between any of the three items. We therefore chose to analyze only the EEG data up to the point of vocal artifact. Here, we chose to follow the same procedure as in Hutchison (2007), namely, the non-recursive procedure for outlier elimination (Van Selst and Jolicoeur, 1994). Before proceeding to group-level analyses, single-subject averages for the ERP analysis were finalized in the following way. Single-subject data for the time-frequency analysis were preprocessed in a similar way. ERPs were elicited While our limit of 382 ms for analysis post-target likely excludes the later portion of the N400 (generally peaking at ∼400 ms post-target), it nevertheless captures the onset of any putative N400, generally considered to onset at 200 ms poststimulus and to reflect semantic processing (Kutas and Federmeier, 2011). Before each stimulus block, a brief instruction was presented on the screen for 3.6 s to indicate what sort of response would be necessary. 2B): a dorsal and mesial part (dAG) at approximately z = +40 mm (which is above the overlap), a ventral part (vAG) at approximately z = +20 mm (which is below the overlap), and a middle (mAG) at approximately z = +30 mm (which corresponds to the location of the overlap). S1 and S2, available at www.jneurosci.org as supplemental material; see detailed results on data from right-handed subjects only). The ERP plot in panel A shows the mean of electrodes (19 electrodes) within the 316- to 350-ms cluster found in the main effect analysis (Fig. As an exploratory analysis, and to increase power to detect a potential interaction effect, we tested for the interaction within each of the main effect clusters by averaging per condition and participant across all channels and time points within each main effect cluster. Each participant was assigned two Critical sets of word-pairs (one related and one unrelated; 78 word-pairs per list) and two Filler sets (one related and one unrelated; 98 word-pairs per list). It is also unlikely to reflect visual or perceptual processing per se because dAG activation was not differentially activated by (a) perceptual decisions and saying “1,2,3” or (b) non-objects and Greek letters. Semantic Attention: Effects of Modality, Lexicality and Semantic Content by David Britton advisor: Robert Melara, Ph. The trial procedure is shown in Figure 1. In this experiment, participant’s behavior (RT; C) showed the same pattern as their ERP responses (B). If individuals use the global context of prime validity to modulate their expectations, behavioral facilitation follows. The vocal RTs were measured with a Cedrus SV-1 Voice Key (Cedrus Corporation), with all participants completing four practice trials under the experimenter´s supervision to adjust the voice key threshold according to the participant´s speech volume. However, we found no evidence of any differences in these measures between high and low validity primes before target onset. In the right hemisphere, activation was only significant in the cerebellum. C, D, ERP plots show data (mean and shaded 95% confidence interval) from the electrode where the effect was maximal (highlighted with a white circle on the top plots), with the cluster period highlighted in gray. There are some concerns that authors should address the before publication. Regarding the source estimation analyses, the early effect was localized to the middle frontal gyrus, which has been previously associated with semantic categorization when compared with passive listening (Noesselt et al., 2003). semantic priming / semantic satiation / schizophrenia INTROdUCTION Dereism can be defined as a sense of unreal physical and social world, or changed and un-real perception of the reality. Time-series from each voxel were high-pass filtered (1/128 Hz cutoff) to remove low-frequency noise and signal drift. For the remaining 62 participants, a median of 37 trials (range: 16–39) contributed to the high related condition; a median of 36 trials (range: 12–39) to the high unrelated condition; a median of 37 trials (range: 16–39) to the low related condition; and a median of 36 (range: 15–39) contributed to the low unrelated condition. This paradigm elicits an initial MMN to local violations of expectation, and a subsequent centro-parietal positivity at ∼300 ms poststimulus (P3b) to global violations of expectation (Faugeras et al., 2012; King et al., 2014; El Karoui et al., 2015); thereby, separating prediction error signals at two levels of an expectation hierarchy that unfold sequentially. NOTE: We request your email address only to inform the recipient that it was you who recommended this article, and that it is not junk mail. The inclusion of different types of non-semantic stimuli was also important for assessing the impact of perceptual processing in AG because the pictures of non-objects were physically bigger than the Greek letters (maximum visual angle was 7.3° × 8.5° for pictures and 4.9° × 1.2° for words). To minimize artefacts from additional preparatory muscular activity before vocal onset, in our preregistered methods, we planned to choose the latest time point for analysis post-target by identifying when the mouth EMG signal began to significantly differ between prime validity conditions in a temporal cluster mass randomization test, as implemented in FieldTrip (Oostenveld et al., 2011). Predictive coding theory posits that the brain generates expectations about upcoming stimuli at varying levels of complexity, from low-level expectations about stimulus properties through to higher-level conceptual expectations. The p values that we obtained were corrected for multiple comparisons across AAL regions using false discovery rate (FDR; Yekutieli and Benjamini, 1999). The same was true for the β band (13–30 Hz; 0- to 1240-ms cluster p = 0.312; 530- to 1240-ms cluster p = 0.197). Nevertheless, tasks that do not produce large muscular artefacts, such as a lexical decision task (LDT) in which individuals only produce motor responses on filler trials, would allow for analysis of the N400 time window. We therefore propose that dAG activation in response to non-semantic (unfamiliar) stimuli might reflect a search for semantics even though this search will be implicit (not task related) and unsuccessful during the non-semantic conditions. All stimuli were converted to gray scale and filtered to have identical brightness values to ensure homogeneity. 5). (5) “Name” indicated that the participant should name each of the 3 objects in the pictures aloud. Non-semantic tags are the tags which Tells nothing about its content. What do we mean by prediction in language comprehension? However, in preregistered analyses of main effects in the same latency range, we found four significant main effects of relatedness of the target (i.e., unrelated vs related targets; Fig. Thank you for sharing this Journal of Neuroscience article. P22, it would be useful to repeat that “strategy” or “no-strategy” groups were based on the final survey (and not the data) here. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium provided that the original work is properly attributed. To test for significant differences between conditions we conducted five contrasts as mentioned above; first, an interaction between prime validity (high/low) and relatedness of the target (related/unrelated) in a time window from 316 to 350 ms; next, we tested the early and late main effects of relatedness of the target (related/unrelated) as observed in the sensor analyses results (four main effects), in their respective time windows for the early effect (226–280 and 232–290 ms); and the late effect (306–382 and 316–350 ms). This study was preregistered in the Open Science Framework website, details and all codes described in the paper can be found under the following link: https://osf.io/v35te/. We prepared the EEG data before subjecting it to statistical analyses, where we balanced the number of trials in each condition, by taking the smallest condition N as a reference and randomly discarding trials from the other conditions surpassing that N, resulting in equal datasets. However, neither of these two regions were part of our preregistered hypotheses. All functional volumes were spatially realigned, un-warped, normalized to MNI space using the unified normalization-segmentation procedure of SPM5, and smoothed with an isotropic 6 mm full-width at half-maximum Gaussian kernel, with resulting voxels size of 2 × 2 × 2 mm3. In contrast, higher mAG activation for words than pictures reflects the fact that conceptual identification of words can occur indirectly after accessing phonology. After removal of trials rated as mispronunciations and those considered outliers according to the non-recursive outlier elimination procedure of Van Selst and Jolicoeur (1994; as experiment 1), a median of 28 trials (range: 11–38) contributed to the high related condition; a median of 29.5 trials (range: 13–38) to the high unrelated condition; a median of 29 trials (range: 12–39) to the low related condition; and a median of 28 (range: 14–37) contributed to the low unrelated condition. Next, the slope values were compared between conditions with the spatial cluster mass analysis in FieldTrip (Oostenveld et al., 2011). In accordance with predictive coding, we hypothesized that ERP amplitudes would reflect violations of expectation at consecutive levels of the hierarchy, with local violations evident earlier than global violations. Non-semantic tags are just opposite in nature of semantic tags. A total of 64 participants were recruited, with the data of two participants excluded from analysis because of outlying data, as quantified by the non-recursive procedure for outlier elimination (detailed below, Behavioural data analyses section; Van Selst and Jolicoeur, 1994; Hutchison, 2007). One explanation for this effect is that the semantic knowledge associated with real-world objects makes them easier to maintain in working memory. This apredictive pattern is not readily explained by prediction error accounts without appeal to precision-weighting, in which a prediction error is weighted by the system’s confidence in the signal (Friston, 2005; Wacongne et al., 2012; Chennu et al., 2013). (3) “Same pictures” cued a finger press response to indicate whether the target picture was perceptually identical to the picture on the lower-left or lower-right. Each participant was tested individually and sat ∼70 cm away from the computer screen. In this paper, we present two experiments, a pen-and-paper and a verbal protocol study, where participants used oppositely related and similarly related word stimuli in conceptual design. Therefore, when seeing a blue prime, individuals could judge their response (word/non-word) solely based on the prime, in this case a “word” as most of the word-pairs are related. Consistent with this two-stage expectation profile, the ERPs in response to the target words also exhibited a two-stage profile, with an early effect modulated by local expectation (around 250 ms) and a later effect modulated by global expectation (around 350 ms). By examining the effects of task and stimuli in each AG subdivision, we propose that mAG is involved in semantic associations regardless of the presence or absence of a stimulus; dAG is involved in searching for semantics in all visual stimuli, and vAG is involved in the conceptual identification of visual inputs. There were no other significant correlations, but in mAG, there was a no significant trend for deactivation to be stronger in older than younger subjects (p = 0.06). Fusiform gyrus: ventral & inferior surface - responded equally to verbal vs. non-verbal or semantic stimuli. Indeed, the magnitude of the CNV has been linked to the amount of top-down expectation instantiated by a stimulus (Chennu et al., 2013), thus leading to our hypothesis of differential amounts of expectation instantiated by high validity and low validity primes. The left AG subdivisions that we have identified should also be useful for explaining why the effects of left AG damage have inconsistent consequences on a range of skills including speech comprehension, speech production, finger agnosia, spatial disorientation, acalculia and agraphia (Luria, 1970; Hart and Gordon, 1990; Ardila et al., 2000; Jefferies and Lambon Ralph, 2006; Corbett et al., 2009). The goal of our research was to provide a neuroanatomical examination of embodied cognition using action-related pictures and words. The effect size of a voxel within the default network that is not part of the semantic system (indicated by a white cross) is shown on a bar graph in black. To explain why left AG is part of both the default and the semantic networks, Binder and colleagues (Binder et al., 1999, 2009; McKiernan et al., 2003, 2006) proposed that task-unrelated thoughts during conscious passive states are essentially semantic because they involve activation and manipulation of acquired knowledge about the world that is interrupted during effortful tasks so that competition between exogenous and endogenous attentional and executive resources is reduced. Chosen Bayesian result terminology (anectodical, etc.. based on BF thresholds) should be specified. The only voxels that showed higher activation within the default network for semantic matching were located in the left angular gyrus. As recommended by SPM12, the resulting ERP was low-pass filtered below 20 Hz using a FIR filter (again, with EEGLAB’s pop_neweegfilt), and the mean of the baseline window (−200–0 ms) was subtracted. Language relationships such as opposition provide a systematic method of generating non-obvious semantic stimuli for design problems. The sensor covariance matrix was estimated for all these sets of data in the time window −382–382 ms relative to target onset. A method for using blocked and event-related fMRI data to study “resting state” functional connectivity, Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man. Importantly, because of the well known relationship between language laterality and handedness (Pujol et al., 1999; Knecht et al., 2000; Szaflarski et al., 2002), we aimed to test whether any effect in left AG would be significant when atypical data from left handers were included or excluded. Also tested with abstract & concrete concepts. Nevertheless, as we observed behavioral semantic priming (as tracked by the early effect) even for participants who were not making strategic expectations, and because of the shared common features with the MMN (i.e., more extreme for errors and with a fronto-central focus), we consider the early effect to be consistent with an error of local expectation, i.e., expectation based on the identity of the prime, rather than the prime validity. Two positive-going ERPs ( Fig.. based non semantic stimuli BF thresholds ) should be discussed more thoroughly in! 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